research-methodology

Turabian notes-bibliography footnotes use natural author name order, commas between elements, and publication data in parentheses, ending with the cited page. Repeated citations use shortened notes with the author's last name, short title, and page rather than Ibid.

A systematic review answers a narrow predefined question using a documented, reproducible multi-database search following PRISMA guidelines. A narrative review traces a broader topic's development based on author judgment and is typically not reproducible.

Choose quantitative when hypotheses are clear, constructs are measurable, and generalization is needed. Choose qualitative for how or why questions about poorly understood phenomena, and mixed-methods when neither approach alone answers the full question.

Author-date style with parenthetical in-text citations and a references list is standard in physical, natural, and social sciences. Notes-bibliography with footnotes and a bibliography is used in humanities, literature, history, and arts.

Patchwriting keeps the source's structure or vocabulary while changing only a few words, misrepresenting whose words the reader sees. Avoid it by reading the source, putting it away, writing from memory, then comparing and rewriting anything still too close.

Following the 2016 ASA statement, report the triplet of point estimate, confidence interval, and effect size in subject-matter units. Never base a conclusion solely on whether a p-value passes 0.05, and report non-significant results.